The Body Theory - 1247 Words

The personal identity problem is a philosophical conundrum that asks the question, what makes someone the same over time, or what characterizes the preservation of one’s identity? The term identity does not refer to the type of sameness identical twins have, or quantitative identity, but rather refers to numerical identity, that is for X and Y to be identical, everything possessed by X must also be possessed by Y (Leibniz’s Law). With this in mind, one might say they have the same body as they did a year ago so they must be the same person now as they were then. This answer is called the Body Theory, for obvious reasons. It states that personal identity is preserved through the preservation of one’s body. Although this may seem like a good answer on the surface, there are many flaws to the Body Theory. Let’s look at the case of a mad scientist named Dr. Jeckyll, who creates and drinks a mysterious concoction which knocks him out. Upon awaking, Jeckyll has aquired a new set of less than savory mannerisms and habits in replacement of his old ones and knows nothing of Dr. Jeckyll nor has any memories from Jeckyll’s life. After a night of wreaking havoc, this new personality, let’s call him Mr. Hyde, goes to sleep and wakes up the next morning as Jeckyll once again. Jeckyll’s last memory is drinking his concoction before he was knocked out and he knows nothing of Hyde nor his misdeeds. Jeckyll goes about his day and goes to bed but when he wakes up he is no longer Jeckyll, butShow MoreRelatedThe Mind And Body : Theories1174 Words   |  5 PagesThe mind and body are two abstract concepts however; they both can be deduced to a simple principle of materialism. Rene Descartes posed a claim that, the mind and body are not related and concludes that a brain is m ade of matter while a mind is made of â€Å"mental processes, thought and consciousness† (simply psychology). However, Thomas Hobbes argued that â€Å"everything in the world, including our thoughts and mind, can be explained in terms of one thing: matter in motion (many world of logic). ThroughoutRead MoreThe Theory Of Consciousness And The Body1847 Words   |  8 Pagesthe word consciousness is used regarding human beings, the word itself usually implies that those individuals are conscious of being conscious. Many individuals assume that the mind, the brain, and the body react as one. But the idea of the mind is not related to the concept of the brain or the body. These differences allow philosophers to determine a people’s consciousness in the world around them. Individuals derive the concept of consciousness from their experience because consciousness itselfRead MoreThe Theory Of The Soul And Body944 Words   |  4 PagesTo Socrates, â€Å"the one aim of tho se who practice philosophy in the proper manner is to practice for dying and death† (Phaedo, 64a). One’s soul is the key to knowledge, but the body tends to bring the soul down. In order to strive for that knowledge, the body must be separated from the soul. Socrates believed that part of accomplishing this, one must concentrate on the well-being of their soul and work on being self-aware. To him, most people didn’t have this ability, hence the reason why he said â€Å"thoseRead MoreThe Body Theory And Its Strength And Weaknesses991 Words   |  4 Pagesfew theories that can help with figuring out what makes me, me. There is the soul theory, the body theory, and the personality theory. The body theory consists of the brain and body theory and the torso and body theory. After looking into each theory carefully through Kagan’s lectures, I found that there were flaws in all three theories. The theory that I favor, however, is the body theory and more specif ically the brain aspect of that theory. In my essay I will discuss why I favor the body theoryRead MoreThe Mind Body Identity Theory1668 Words   |  7 Pagesout the nature of a human person; this has lead to various theories and speculation about the nature of the human mind and body. The question they are tying to answer is whether a human being is made of only the physical, body and brain, or both the physical or the mental, mind. In this paper I will focus on the mind-body Identity Theory to illustrate that it provides a suitable explanation for the mind and body interaction. Identity Theory Identity theorists hold the view that the mental eventsRead Moresoul and body theories Essay774 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Name Course Lecturer Date of submission Soul and Body Theory Many of the ancient theories composed by early Greek philosophers were based on rationalism and empiricism. Empiricism refers to acquiring knowledge through experimental insight while on the other hand rationalism is acquiring of knowledge through ones practical understanding. Socrates work is studied in depths up to date, example being â€Å"Republic of Plato† whose author was Plato. SocratesRead MoreThe Theory Of The Mind Body Dualism1232 Words   |  5 Pagesscholastic Aristotelianism and created the first version of the modern mind-body dualism or emotion† (Encyclopedia Britannica). Born on March 31, 1596, he was dubbed as the Father of Modern Philosophy. His theory on the mind-body dualism, also known as Cartesian Dualism, created a stem of the modern problem of the relationship between the mind and body. He created the early version to further explain the interaction of the mind and body, to create a firm foundation that can be explained through science andRead MoreThe Leading Body For Attribution Theory1502 Words   |  7 Pages the leading body for attribution theory and Harold Kelley (1972) and Bernard Weiner (1986), who along with many other psychologists have since attempted to further explain why and how we make attributions. Research to support and contradict their findings will also be covered throughout the text. The term attribution refers to how we as human beings attach meaning to our own, and other people s behaviour. It has been suggested by Fiske and Taylor (1991) that the attribution theory explains waysRead MoreThe Theory Of Body Types, And The Y Chromosome Theory1194 Words   |  5 Pagesto Sociology March 26, 2016 Deviance Many different theories exist regarding deviance. Biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives have applied their different thought processes to produce many theories. Some of these ideas have been discredited, however some remain significant today. Sociological theories differ from biological and psychological theories by looking at external factors rather than internal ones. Biological theories on deviance are the result of looking for answers thatRead MoreThe Theory Of The Mind Body Problem2474 Words   |  10 PagesSonya Cronkrite PHI 344 June 21, 2016 The Mind- Body Problem The mind-body problem is the dilemma of explaining how mental states, events, and processes are related to physical states, events, and processes, given that the human body is a physical thing and the mind is not physical. How does the mind associate with the body if they are not considered the same entities? In this essay I will attempt to persuade you that the mind and the body operate together, one having an effect on the other

Reality Versus Perception in the Kasdan Films, Grand...

Reality Versus Perception in the Kasdan Films, Grand Canyon and Mumford All of knowledge is founded on axioms: assumptions that are agreed upon for stability. However, since those axioms are assumptions and cannot be proven without a doubt, nothing ca truly be known with absolute certainly. Still, in order to carry on with life, assumptions have to be made. Knowing this, the task becomes making assumption that are more educated and, given the lack of certainty, ones that matter. Furthermore, the assumption of others can be examined more accurately with this knowledge in mind. The most important of these assumptions, and in many cases points of debate, is the nature of reality. The old world thought the matters of the spirit to†¦show more content†¦The interlacing strands of themes in both films are much like those of time. Each event triggers another in a continuum of interrelationships between factors of co and counter-stimulus. The following exposition focuses on articulating how those films portray the endeavor to determine, if not t rue reality, then certainly some forms of realities. More specifically, attention will be drawn to the variable perception of these realities in Grand Canyon, and the notion of reality being variable in the first place from a look at Mumford. A number of events occur within Grand Canyon, which are interpreted differently by different characters. In the beginning Mac is being harassed by a gang and thus gets, in a manner of speaking, saved from a worse fate by Simon. Mac believes this to be some sort of blessing or even divine intervention. Though if not, he certainly attributes some greater force than random occurrence to the favorable turn of events. Mac and Simon’s conversation following the incident shows that Simon may have a more rationally slanted perspective. Simon’s telling of a story about the shark illustrates that Mac’s meeting of the gang is a matter of being in the wrong place at the wrong time, and that these things happen as a way of the way things are. Though Simon does question whether or not it is â€Å"the way things are supposed to be.† Later in the story, the money-minded movie producer Davis gets shot.

Moby Dick Brotherhood of Man Essay Example For Students

Moby Dick Brotherhood of Man Essay In the intricate novel of Herman Melvilles Moby Dick, the notion of a universal brotherhood of Man is introduced in the first fifteen chapters. Melville uses the relationship of Ishmael and Queequeg and the everyday standards of the shipmen to illustrate these ideas. A theme of the novel is the idea of comradeship between human beings, no matter how different. In the following essay, I will analyze and explain this concept by incorporating events that coincide. The theme of universal brotherhood of Man is first introduced in the third chapter. After Ishmael finally found an inn to stay in, The Spouter-Inn, and got a chance to get familiarized with the place, he watched as the newly arrived shipmates took pleasure in each others presence. These men drank and had fun, feeling happy-go-lucky and limitless. However, Ishmael noticed a shipmate that stood out. One of them held somewhat aloof This man interested me at once. (Page 14) This shipmate was subdued and did not make as much of a ruckus as the other men and while these men were at the peak of their gaiety, he snuck out of the bar. When the men noticed that Bulkington, the quiet man, was gone, they all went searching for him. `Bulkington! Bulkington! Wheres Bulkington? and darted out of the house in pursuit of him. (Page 15) This incident shows the brotherhood of Man. Even if one was to be the outcast of a group, he is still part of the group and when the outcast disappears, part of the gr oup is missing. That is why those shipmen looked for Bulkington. They had a special bond with each other a brotherly bond universally shared. Another example of the brotherhood of Man is depicted through the relationship between Ishmael and Queequeg. When Ishmael firsts meets Queequeg, he was startled by his appearance and tentative about sleeping with him. However, Ishmael looks beyond his appearance in hopes that Queequeg is a really benign and decides to give it a shot. Later on in the story Ishmael sees Queequeg as a man of honest heart, dignity and greet courage. The next morning, when Ishmael wakes up, he finds Queequegs arms over him. I found Queeuegs arm thrown over me in the most loving and affectionate way. You had almost thought I had been his wife (page 24) Here is an example of brotherly love. Only knowing each other for a few hours, Queequeg felt comfortable enough to put his arm around Ishmael in a loving manner. Also, when Ishmael wakes Queequeg up to get his arm off him, Queequeg does so in a polite manner, even after Ishmael rudely wakes him up. Queequeg respects Ishmael like a brother, and Ishmael feels the same. Eventually, Queequeg feels so comfortable with Ishmael that he gives half of everything he owns to Ishmael. They knew each other for only a short period of time, yet they treat each other as family. Lastly, a situation that happened in the novel concerning the brotherhood of Man happened in Chapter 7 in the chapel. A lot of people gathered in the chapel to mourn the deaths of loved one, friends, and even those with no relation. Even Ishmael and Queequeg were there although they knew no one there. This shows the brotherhood of Man because everyone is gathered in one congregation mourning for the loss of their fellow brothers, whom they loved dearly.Everyone shares a common love for their peers, even if they did not know them. To conclude, one of the major themes of the book Moby Dick is the idea of universal brotherhood in Man. The shipmen who cared for each other, the people gathered in the chapel and the relationship between Ishmael and Queequeg both illustrate that theme. Melville wanted to show the readers that there is a unique but special solidarity between humans that cannot be stopped. We all care about each other and treat each other as if we were all family.

Stonehenge Essays (1568 words) - Stonehenge, Henges,

Stonehenge Stonehenge Stonehenge is one of the worlds best known monuments of the ancient times. Stonehenge stood for over five thousand years, and still we do not know the full use of this mysterious arrangement of stones. Stonehenge remains asan ancient monument that still propose mysteries to it origin and purpose. At first, scientists had no clue as to who built Stonehenge. The Romans, Egyptians, and the Phoenicians were all suggested to have been a possible creator of Stonehenge. Later study proved that none of these cultured built Stonehenge. The truth of Stonehenge is that three different cultures contributed to this megalithic monument. The first group began construction around 3100 B.C.. Neolithic herdsmen began the first step in the construction of Stonehenge. The first part of this monument began as a modest circular ditch. Within this circle 56 holes were dug. These hole, later named Aubrey Holes after their discoverer, presented mysteries to scientists for years. These strange holes served two purposes. The first, and more important reason, is that these holes acted as a lunar calender. The moon has a cycle for it's eclipses. Once a lunar eclipse occurs, another will not happen for nineteen years. After those nineteen years, the moon will, once again, eclipse. The next, and final, eclipse of this cycle occurs eighteen years after the previous eclipse. These years add up to be fifty-six. Scientists believe that a stone was placed in one hole in the circle. Each year, the stone would be moved to the next hole. This way the ancient people could keep track of the moon. The other reason has a morbid side to it. In some of the Aubrey holes, remains of humans were discovered. These remains were first cremated, then put into the holes. This suggests that Stonehenge could have acted as a burial site, and possibly a temple in which human sacrifices were made. None of these theories have been proven, but these reasons are the only feasible explanation to these holes. The second period is that which the most data can be found on. The second period began at about 2100B.C.. The Beaker people, a group which worshiped the sun, added to the monument it's first large stones. The first thing done is that any of the stones that were already there were removed. Next, thirty large stones were brought to the site. The stones, each weighing well over five tons, were to act as the pillars of the new monument. These stones were called the Sarsen Stones, stemming from what they are made of. These stones, however, are only two-thirds above ground. The other third is buried to keep the huge pillar from toppling over. The Beaker people created two concentric circles, the inner circle measuring seventy four meters in diameter, and the outer circle eighty six meters. The outer circle was later named the Sarsen Circle. The inner circle was never completed, and no one has any evidence as to why. It appears that they just stopped, without cleaning up or removing any of the old stones. Some speculate that the project was to large that it seemed insurmountable the Beaker people. The third period began at about 1550 B.C.. The Wesset culture was going to add their touch to the growing monument. The Wesset culture decided to dismantle the work of the Beaker people, but decided on a similar design. They decided to construct a circle around the same point the Beaker people used for their circle. On top of each pillar, however, a large rectangular stone was placed, with each side resting on neighboring pillars. This created a continuous circle all around the monument. Instead of a smaller circle within the larger circle, the Wesset culture placed a simple horse-shoe. The horse-shoe, just as the large circle, was capped with large rectangular stones. "Given the distance they had to travel, this presented quite a transportation problem."(Lacy, www.britannia.com/travel/magical/magic12.htm). The problem of getting the stones to the building site was large enough to stop most people from even attempting such a project. There were to ways used to deliver the massive stones to the building site. The first was by land. Giant carts were constructed to carry the smaller stones. The stones were loaded on the cart and pulled eighty-five miles to Stonehenge. This method would not work for the larger stones as a large enough cart could not be made. For these stones, a wooden raft was made, and they were sent down a nearby river. From the banks of the river it was a short distance to Stonehenge. Placing the stones took some thinking. First, a five foot deep pit was

Definitions of Whats Ungrammatical in English

Definitions of What's 'Ungrammatical' in English In descriptive grammar, the term ungrammatical refers to an irregular word group or sentence structure that makes little apparent sense because it disregards the syntactic conventions of the language. Contrast with grammaticality. In language studies (and on this website), examples of ungrammatical constructions are usually preceded by asterisks (*). Judgments regarding ungrammatical constructions are often subject to gradience. In prescriptive grammar, ungrammatical may refer to a word group or sentence structure that fails to conform to the proper way of speaking or writing, according to the standards set by some authority. Also called grammatical error. Contrast with correctness. Examples and Observations Designating a sentence as ungrammatical simply means that native speakers tend to avoid the sentence, cringe when they hear it, and judge it as sounding odd. . . .Calling a sentence ungrammatical means that it sounds odd all things being equalthat is, in a neutral context, under its conventional meaning, and with no special circumstances in force.(Steven Pinker, The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window Into Human Nature. Viking, 2007)Sentences . . . are simply the highest-level expressions of a language, and an ungrammatical string is a morpheme sequence which fails to constitute a meaningful expression of any kind.(Michael B. Kac, Grammars and Grammaticality. John Benjamins, 1992) Examples of Grammatical and Ungrammatical Sentences With Reflexive Pronouns Grammatical Ungrammatical(Terri L. Wells, L2 Acquisition of English Binding Domains. Morphology and Its Interfaces in Second Language Knowledge, ed. by Maria-Luise Beck. John Benjamins, 1998) The smart student thinks that the teacher likes himself.The very happy mother said that the girl dresses herself.The young child said that the pretty woman hurt herself.The man in the blue jacket said that the dog bit himself.The crying father said that the younger boy cut himself.The woman thinks that the student does not like herself.The doctor said that the old man shot himself in the foot.The lawyers think that the four policemen shot themselves.*The man thinks the boy does not like that stupid himself.*The woman said that the little girl saw yesterdays herself.*The taxi driver said that the man hit that careless himself.*The girl said that the teacher laughed at that funny herself.*The soldiers know that the generals like todays themselves.*The student said that the athlete hurt that stupid himself.*The mother wrote that the child laughed at that slow herself.*The man said that the boy was angry with the lazy himself. Distinguishing Between Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar The sentence below is a garden-variety English sentence, which is descriptively grammatical to any English speaker . . .. I eat bacon and eggs with ketchup. We can form a question based on this sentence as follows: What do you eat bacon and eggs with? This sentence is descriptively grammatical but violates a prescriptive rule; recall that for some, ending a sentence with a preposition (in this case, with) is prescriptively ungrammatical. But now consider this sentence: I eat bacon and eggs and ketchup. When we try to form a question we get the following: *What do you eat bacon and eggs and? No English speaker would utter this sentence (hence the *), but why not? The source sentences look exactly the same; the only difference is that ketchup follows with in the first sentence, and and in the second. It turns out that with, a preposition, functions quite differently from and, a conjunction, and the distinction between the two is part of our unconscious knowledge of English. Studying this unconscious knowledge, revealed in puzzles like this one, allows us to construct a model, or theory of descriptive grammar, a model that attempts to explain why we quite naturally produce grammatical sentences such as What did you eat your bacon and eggs with? but not ungrammatical ones like What did you eat your bacon and eggs and? (Anne Lobeck and Kristin Denham, Navigating English Grammar: A Guide to Analyzing Real Language. Blackwell, 2014)

The Crimes of Florida Death Row Inmate Tiffany Cole

The Crimes of Florida Death Row Inmate Tiffany Cole Tiffany Cole, along with three co-defendants, was convicted of the kidnapping and first-degree murder of a Florida couple, Carol and Reggie Sumner.   A Trusted Friend Tiffany Cole knew the Summers. They were a frail couple that had been her neighbors in South Carolina. She had also bought a car from them and had visited them in their home in Florida. It was during one of those visits that she learned that they had sold their South Carolina home and made a $99,000 profit. From that point on, Cole, Michael Jackson, Bruce Nixon, Jr., and Alan Wade  began plotting a way to rob the couple. They knew that gaining access to their home would be easy since the Summers knew and trusted Cole. The Robbery On July 8, 2005, Cole, Jackson, Nixon, Jr., and Alan Wade went to the Summers home with the intention of robbing and killing the couple. Once inside the home, the Summers were bound with duct tape while Nixon, Wade, and Jackson searched the home for valuables. They then forced the couple to their garage and into the trunk of their Lincoln Town Car Buried Alive Nixon and Wade drove the Lincoln Town Car, followed by Cole and Jackson who were in a Mazda that Cole had rented for the trip. They were headed to a spot located right across the Florida line in Georgia. They had already picked out the spot and prepared it by digging a large hole two days earlier.   When they arrived Jackson and Wade led the couple into the hole and buried them alive. At some point, Jackson had forced the couple to tell him their personal identification number for their ATM card. The group then abandoned the Lincoln and found a hotel room to stay in for the night. The next day they returned to the Summers home, wiped it down with Clorox, stole jewelry and a computer which Cole later pawned. Over the next few days, the group celebrated their crime by spending several thousand dollars that they got from the Summers ATM account. The Investigation On July 10, 2005, Mrs. Summers daughter, Rhonda Alford, called authorities and reported that her parents were missing.   Investigators went to the Summers home and discovered a bank statement which showed a large sum of money in it. The bank was contacted and it was learned that an excessive amount of money had been withdrawn from the account over the past few days. On July 12, Jackson and Cole, posing as the Summers, made a call to the Jacksonville Sheriffs Office. They told the detective that responded to the call that they had left town quickly due to a family emergency and they were having problems accessing their account. They were hoping that he could help. Suspecting that they were not really the Summers, the detective contacted the bank and asked them not to block any withdraws from the account so that he could continue his investigation. He was then able to track the cellular telephone that the callers used. It belonged to Michael Jackson and records showed the phone had been used near the Summers home at the time that they disappeared. There were also several calls made to a car rental company who was able to provide the detective with a description of the Mazda that Cole had rented and which was now overdue. By using the global tracking system in the car, it was determined that the Mazda had been within blocks of the Summers home on the night that they went missing. Busted On July 14, the entire group, with the exception of Cole, was caught at a Best Western Hotel in Charlestown, South Carolina. Police searched the two hotel rooms that were rented under Coles name and found personal property belonging to the Summers. They also found the Summers ATM card in Jacksons back pocket. Cole was caught at her home near Charlestown after police got here address through the car rental agency where she rented the Mazda. Confession Bruce Nixon was the first co-defendant that confessed to murdering the Summers. He provided the police with the details of the crimes that were committed, how the robbery and abduction were planned and the location of where the couple was buried. Dr. Anthony J. Clark, Medical Examiner for the Georgia Bureau of Investigation performed autopsies on the Summers and testified that they both died after being buried alive and their airways passages became blocked with dirt.   Cole Pleads Her Case Cole took the stand during her trial. She testified that she thought that the crime would be a simple theft and that she did not knowingly participate in the robberies, kidnappings, or murders. She also said that she was at first unaware that the Summers were in the trunk of their Lincoln and that they were being taken to the pre-dug gravesite. She then said the holes were dug in order to scare the Summers into giving up their ATM PIN numbers. Conviction and Sentencing On October 19, 2007, the jury deliberated for 90 minutes before finding Cole guilty of two counts of first-degree murder, on both premeditation and felony-murder theories, two counts of kidnapping, and two counts of robbery.Cole was sentenced to death for each murder, life imprisonment for each kidnapping, and fifteen years for each robbery.  She is currently on death row at the  Lowell Correctional Institution Annex Co-Defendants Wade and Jackson were also convicted and sentenced to two death sentences.  Nixon pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to 45 years in prison.

Is Britain taking the right approach to Prostitution Essay

Is Britain taking the right approach to Prostitution - Essay Example Prostitution is one of the last bulwarks of this way of thinking. In the course of this essay, prostitution in the UK will be examined and it will be argued that it should be legalized. Prostitution in the UK is a dangerous business. Female prostitutes are more likely to be assaulted and murdered and to have shorter lives (Castillo, 126). Prostitutes are often the victims of serial killers as we can see from the Ipswich murders in recent years. We need to find a way to regulate in order to keep sex workers safe. The truth is that under the current law, sex workers are at risk. They must conduct their business under cover of night and have little time to communicate with potential johns due to law prohibiting communication. As such, they are placed at higher risk. Indeed, the very fact that prostitution is not in itself illegal, is an indication of how society thinks it should be dealt with by police. Instead, the various ancillary crimes such as living off the avails of prostitution and communicating for the purposes of prostitution are illegal. This is hypocritical and endangers the lives of sex workers. For this reason, these laws should be struck down. They threaten the human rights of UK sex workers. It is easy to imagine scenarios where the current laws have been responsible for higher crime rates (Phoenix, 52). Take for instance an example of a lonely man who yearns for sexual interaction or intercourse and cannot find a woman who is easily willing to fulfil his sexual needs. It is possible his behaviour may lead him to rape or other illegal behaviour. This need not be the case if prostitution is effectively legalized. Or suppose a married man has a high sex drive then his wife and sometimes his wife is not always available to meet his sexual desires, his behaviour may lead him to abuse her. This too can be avoided if there is a legal outlet. Once prostitution is regulated, sex workers will have more health checks and will be safer. We should follow the l ead of our European neighbours and regulate prostitution (and take the tax revenue from it) rather than continue to criminalize it and force it into the darkest corners of society, where sex workers are most at risk. The very idea that prostitution is effectively illegal stands in the face of political freedom. The truth, in my opinion, is that the freest society is the best one. The government creates lots of laws in order to prevent people from making the most of their lives. Of course, some laws are necessary, such as murder is wrong, but many other laws serve no purpose: in the end they just create a â€Å"nanny state.† Libertarianism stands against needless laws and in favour of freedom. The government should play only the smallest role in our lives and should not tell us who we can and cannot sleep with. Libertarianism is a political philosophy that idealizes personal freedom and non-judgement (Nozick 32). More than ever before, people in the UK living in a Nanny State. A Nanny State is one that uses excessive state controls, for example, lots of unnecessary laws, to restrict its citizens’ freedom. It believes that it knows best and that citizens should follow its morality. Of course, there is a general feeling that certain things are wrong and should be discouraged or criminalized, but for proponents of the Nanny State, the government should seize control of actions and issues where there is no consensus and unilaterally impose its view of morality on these issues. We

Gift-Giving and Exchange as an Important Element in Japanese Society Essay

Gift-Giving and Exchange as an Important Element in Japanese Society - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the research that along with the Confucian values, wrote Ilchman, Katz, and Queens, in particular, the value of humaneness, such obligation extend outwards to teachers, relatives, close neighbors and business associates. Japanese companies, for instance, allocate funds for equitable compensation to employees for ceremonial events or kankonsosai. Such importance given to the exchange of gifts allows the act to pervade in Japanese ceremonies and customs that is why it reveals a wealth of information in regard to Japanese rituals. There are four classifications of occasions or instances when gift-giving is required among the Japanese: life-cycle ceremonies, gift-giving occasions regulated by the calendar, emergencies that cause sudden deprivations and special events that call for prompt gift-giving. These occasions are diverse and are consistently well defined, and most importantly for this study, associated with particular rituals. They also entail Japanese p rinciples that are the basis of rituals and ceremonies. These include the concepts of obligation, duty, reciprocity, among others. Gift-giving is a prominent element in life-cycle ceremonies or â€Å"rite of passage† events and therefore provide a wealth of insights on the rituals that define these stages and the growth phases between them. As it is, people are preoccupied with gift-giving in birth, marriage, and death of people as well as in education, wedding anniversary, etc. In so many instances, gift-giving becomes a means of exchange –a kind of exchange that articulates obligation. For instance, during a wedding, there is normally a table outside of the hall where the wedding takes place. Young people sat behind this table and they are tasked to collect the money contained in envelopes given by arriving guests. What is interesting, perhaps for most foreigners, is that the amount contained in the envelope is strictly recorded along with the name of its giver.

Pollution Effects and Counter Measures Essay Example for Free

Pollution Effects and Counter Measures Essay The impact of human activity on our environment cannot be denied. Many aspects of today’s environmental problems are only now coming to light as scientists explore the causes and effects of human impact on the world around us. Today’s generation has seen both unwarranted skepticism and exaggeration on both sides of the debate on how close we are to an environmental catastrophe. Although, as Frederick Buell wrote, as of today our world â€Å"has not ended; eco-apocalypse hasnt happened. Yet people today also accept the fact that they live in the shadow of environmental problems so severe that they constitute a crisis† (xii). While it is easier to understand the problems we face today by classifying human activity and its consequences into neatly defined, cause-and-effect relationships, it is important to realize that all of these causes and effects interact in a complex web to bring about an environmental crisis. That said, pollution is one of the most widespread results of human activity, encompassing a broad range of substances with pervasive effects. The effect of pollutants on our environment is one of the most widely publicized factors contributing to its degradation. And deservedly so; pollutants are diverse, and pollution takes many forms, but the effect of unchecked pollution is rapid, extensive, and often dramatic in its visual manifestations. Finally, in many cases pollution defies geographical and political boundaries, making it an international concern, and controlling it will require the involvement of citizens and organizations from all levels of society. Pollution involves the introduction of pollutants into the environment, and it is commonly organized into major categories – air, soil, and water – based on which component of the environment is affected. Other forms of pollution are classified based on the nature of the pollutant, and these include radiation pollution, biological pollution, and noise pollution. Scientists have developed many ways of gauging the level of pollution, or of a specific pollutant within the environment, but when one considers the direct impact of pollution on human health, it is exposure that matters more than the concentration of pollutants. In the environmental pathway, exposure to a certain concentration of a pollutant is what determines the actual dose of the pollutant in the exposed individual, and this is what leads to possible health consequences (Akbar et al., 62). In many cases, pollution is an occupational hazard, posing the greatest danger to people who suffer the most exposure as part of their daily lives. With some pollutants, however, the effects are indirect, not affecting an individual’s health, but impacting a society’s resources and economy in subtle ways. Even with the increased environmental awareness in modern society, it is surprising how many people still see nothing wrong simply because they are not directly affected by pollution. The purpose of this research is to give an overview of the different classes of pollution, how they affect society on different levels, and some of the measures that can help to prevent or reduce its spread. When one thinks of air pollution, perhaps the first image that comes to mind is that of a smog-filled skyline of a major city, through which a hazy sun barely shines. However, exposure to the outdoor smog in a polluted city is not the main source of pollutant dosage. Most of the actual human exposure to air pollution occurs indoors, simply because that is where most people spend most of their time (Akbar et al., 61). Just as the health risks of polluted water can be minimized by treatment, the risks posed by polluted air (namely, cardiovascular and respiratory disease) can be lessened by using proper filters within homes and offices. While it is possible to keep the indoor air quality under control, improving atmospheric air quality will require a collective effort on a much larger scale. Major sources of worldwide pollutant emissions are industrial operations, power plants, road vehicles, forest fires, and the incineration of refuse. Vehicular emissions are not only limited to exhaust, but also include emissions from the wear of tires and brakes and the road surface itself, which makes it difficult to come up with an accurate estimate of total vehicular emissions. Many of these sources of emissions are similarly difficult to quantify, but the overall statistics show that air pollution trends are higher in developing countries, and above the national average in megacities (Akbar et al., 36). This reflects a general trend of better environmental awareness, and environment protection programs that have been implemented for a longer time in well-developed, industrialized countries. For some pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide – a product of the combustion of fossil fuels – the global trend shows a decrease, but for other emissions there is no such evidence (Akbar et al., 49). Clearly, although industrialized countries like America have been consciously reducing some emissions for a longer time than other countries in the developing world, there is much that still needs to be done on an international level. Former United States Vice President Al Gore sums up the nature of the problem regarding the public attitude: †¦Our continued dependence of imported oil†¦is connected to the same pattern that leads us to put 70 million tons of global warming pollution into the earths atmosphere every 24 hours around the world, as if it was an open sewer. And pretending that that doesnt have consequence, when theres signs to tell us it definitely does†¦that’s really the essence of this problem. But because its so pervasive, in order to change it, we really have to have a sea change in public opinion in this country and around the world before the politicians and the government leaders in every nation will have the courage to do what really is necessary. (Interview with Al Gore, 2007) The second major category of pollution is soil pollution. The composition of soil is an important factor in an ecosystem, affecting what types of vegetation are able to take root and survive, and by extension, what species of animals will thrive in the area. Soil also retains water, and pollution of the soil often spreads to ground water tables. When soil is contaminated by pollutants – usually in the form of heavy metals that disrupt the balance and composition of the soil – it is often harder to detect, and difficult to determine the extent of the pollution. Such contamination typically results from direct deposition of pollutants into the soil. Landfills and waste heaps contain pollutants which gradually leach into the soil, and some of the particles in polluted air fall to the ground, where water runoff and seepage can spread the pollutants and lodge them into the soil. Operations in the mining industry, when improperly managed, can cause long-term damage to the soil, and to the environment as a whole. Jared Diamond cites Montana as a case study of the damage that the mining industry can do to the environment, saying it has â€Å"about 20,000 abandoned mines, some of them recent but many of them a century or more old, that will be leaking acid and†¦toxic metals essentially forever† (36). In most cases, these mines have no surviving owners, or the owners are financially unable to reclaim their property and manage its wastes. The relationship between the soil and the rest of the environment is complex, and much remains to be understood before a standard set of indicators and benchmarks can be used to monitor the quality of all soils. While these subtle relationships and interactions are being actively studied by scientists, land management can be improved and better implemented to lessen the impact of activities such as agriculture and mining, by regulating waste disposal and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. As an example, many farmers practice plowing their fields close to the edge of rivers or streams, and letting their livestock graze at the edge. This practice actually contributes to the erosion of riverbanks and diffusion of agricultural wastes into water. Careful management of land and soil resources can prevent soil erosion, which in turn will lessen the deposition of silt in freshwater areas that may be important habitats or breeding sites for species like salmon. (Environment Agency). Public pressure is necessary for the government to pass laws that will enforce mining companies to take charge of cleaning up their mines; the main responsibility lies with the American public, to be more active and vocal in protecting the environment (Diamond, 38). Water’s properties as a solvent are familiar to everyone, thus it should not be surprising that water is particularly vulnerable to contamination. The flow of bodies of water, as well as water runoff from precipitation, can disperse a high volume of pollutants over the course of a year. Water’s cycle in the environment has unique implications for the spread of pollution, and the various pollutants and contaminants of water comprise the third major category of pollution. Bodies of water can be polluted by point sources, such as sewage treatment plants, or they may be polluted through diffusion. Diffuse pollution can come from misconnected drains in households, leaching of surface wastes into groundwater, or runoff of toxic substances that have been deposited on land. Inland precipitation (in the form of rain) creates water runoff, which drains into larger bodies of water, carrying with it some deposited pollutants from the atmosphere and many untreated wastes that have been improperly disposed of. Oil from roadways and motor vehicles, excess agricultural fertilizer, and assorted litter from the land, can be washed into rivers and out to sea, where the scale of dispersal makes it very difficult to treat the pollution. In fact, the volume of pollution deposited by water from runoff can exceed that of an oil spill. In Puget Sound in the Pacific Northwest, for example, each year from 2000 to 2006 roughly 22,580 metric tons of oil and petroleum products are deposited by runoff, compared to less than 1,000 metric tons from direct oil spills (Dodge). The deterioration of water quality leads to obvious consequences for human consumption. Freshwater with excessive levels of certain pollutants becomes unsafe to drink, and seawater can lose its ability to sustain biodiversity, negatively impacting the fishing industry. Agricultural runoff contains nitrates and phosphates, which are important nutrients for many organisms, but in excessive concentrations in bodies of water they lead to explosions in the population of certain microorganisms (a phenomenon sometimes known as â€Å"algal blooms†). This leads to an overall decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the water, which harms other species, mainly fish, by disrupting spawning and breeding patterns, and can lead to massive deaths in certain species when oxygen levels are depleted (Environment Agency). Thermal pollution of water can occur when a large volume of water is used for cooling purposes in processes that release large amounts of heat. Electrical stations use water for this purpose, and subsequently release it into the environment. This water is considerably warmer than the rest of the water in the environment, and brings a corresponding rise in temperature to the entire body of water where it is released. This again reduces the capacity of water to hold dissolved oxygen, with the same effects described above (Lourenco and Neves). With most point sources of water pollution under regulation, the biggest source of water pollution is diffusion. If the source of pollution cannot be pinpointed, the processes that create or contribute to diffuse pollution have to be more strictly managed. Since 2003, European legislation has created a Water Framework Directive (WFD) to actively assess the standards of water usage with chemical, biological, and physical tests. The WFD monitors all bodies of water (including ground water reserves and artificial reservoirs) with the ultimate goal of reducing water pollution in the United Kingdom and all EU member states by 2015. The United Kingdom’s Environment Agency summarizes some of its recommendations: Key policy issues, such as the control of diffuse water pollution, land-use planning, the designation of heavily modified water bodies and the role of wetlands†¦must be addressed by relevant authorities. Particular emphasis should be placed on the diverse sources of diffuse pollution†¦These include discharges from agriculture and also from other land-uses such as urban developments, transport infrastructure and abandoned mineral workings. Those who manage the land may have to do things in a different way to ensure that they do not cause water pollution. (1) Some forms of pollution are not classified by the sphere of the environment that they contaminate, but by their nature and properties. Our planet is constantly bathed in radiation originating from outer space, and there are trace amounts of radioactivity scattered throughout the earth’s crust. These do not constitute radioactive pollution; typically, this form of pollution originates from nuclear power processing, or from equipment used in nuclear medicine and radiography, although nuclear fallout from bombs and disasters, such as the 1986 Chernobyl incident, is perhaps the most striking example of nuclear pollution. In the case of Chernobyl, flawed design of the nuclear reactor, combined with personnel errors, led to an explosion which released around 5% of the reactor’s core of radioactive material into the atmosphere. The wind carried fallout composed mainly of the radioisotopes iodine-131, cesium-134, and cesium 137, from the reactor across the former Soviet Union. Among the most heavily affected countries were Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. The radioactive pollution’s immediate effect resulted in the death of 30 people, injury to over a hundred other individuals, and the immediate evacuation and relocation of over 200,000 affected citizens. One of the most studied long term effects of the disaster is a significant increase in the number of cases of thyroid cancer among generations of exposed individuals, due to the accumulation of radioactive iodine-131 in the thyroid gland (International Atomic Energy Agency). It should be noted that Chernobyl was a rare nuclear disaster that is not representative of the more common forms of radiation pollution; rather, it serves as an example of the potential scale and duration of pollution’s ill effects. Much more commonly encountered are the radiation-related risks in the medical field, where exposure to X-rays and radiotherapy practices can lead to an increased risk of developing certain cancers among some groups of patients. However, for the most part, properly observed medical standards will ensure that the risk of developing cancer from medical radiation is low – an estimated 0.05% per rem of radiation. The amount of exposure depends on the medical procedures involved, and although the increase in the risk of cancer induction is small (from zero to one percent), there is no threshold of radiation exposure below which it is absolutely risk-free. Thus, all procedures involving radiation exposure should be decided on the basis of risk versus benefit to the patient (Classic). Homo sapiens is the only species that has succeeded in domesticating other species, and with the spread of human civilization, we have carried our pets (and pests) to new lands. Introduced species constitute a form of biological pollution – when a non-native species establishes itself in an ecosystem, displacing certain native species that play a vital role in that ecosystem, and possibly causing economic damage, they are considered invasive. In ecology, the â€Å"rule of tens† states that one in every ten introduced species becomes invasive (Boudouresque and Verlaque, 1). The most significant direct consequence of biological invasion is the extinction of native species that are not adapted to compete with invaders. Such is the case with the Nile perch (Lates niloticus), a popular commercial fish species that was introduced to Lake Victoria in East Africa around the year 1962. The Nile perch disrupted the lake’s ecosystem by predatory activity, feeding on many native fish species, and spreading parasites which it carries in its gills. An estimated 300 fish species native to Lake Victoria were driven to extinction by the 1980s (Blake). While the Nile perch and some other invasive species have at least had some marginal economic benefit (a boost to the commercial fishing industry and local employment), in many cases the effect of biological invasion has been a complete economic disaster. Australia’s plague of introduced European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has not only threatened native animals as the rabbits outcompete them for food and shelter; the rabbits have threatened the ecosystem itself by decimating vegetation, causing the soil (arid and fragile over much of Australia) to erode. This in turn has greatly reduced the available land for sheep and cattle grazing – two of Australia’s major industries. Efforts to reduce rabbit populations have only increased the economic cost of the rabbit invasion, as Australians have tried to use poison, traps, dynamite, and expensive biological control agents in the form of diseases such as myxomatosis and the calicivirus (Diamond, 392). Managing an invasion is very difficult once the invasive species has become established. As noted by Oregon State University biologist John Chapman, â€Å"Unlike other contaminants in the world, introduced species dont have a half-life, they can spread from a single point source, and they have a potentially infinite life span† (qtd. in Reiber). An introduced species becomes established when conditions in the new environment are favorable, and it has little to no competition, and natural predators are lacking. Too often, strategies devised to control populations of invasive species backfire – the myxomatosis disease used to exterminate rabbits in Australia did succeed in bringing down the rabbit population by 90%, but the survivors then developed a resistance to the disease (Diamond, 392). Biological or chemical control agents used to eradicate invasive species often are detrimental to native species as well. In most cases, the safest way to remove invasive species from the environment is manually, which can be highly labor intensive and needs to be organized at the local or community level. Increased sound levels in our surroundings can constitute a form of noise pollution. While some people would classify certain genres or styles of music as noise, the most common form of noise pollution comes from transportation and industrial activity. Extreme levels of noise pollution can lead to a deterioration and eventual impairment of the auditory function in humans and other organisms. Noise pollution also affects individuals in other ways that may be less easy to measure or quantify; increasing levels of stress and annoyance, for example, or disruption of normal sleeping routines. States such as Maryland have implemented some form noise control; in Maryland, the Noise Control Program was passed into legislation in 1970, to provide technical assistance and enforcement regarding noise related issues across the state. It has been de-funded since July 2005, as the duty of regulating noise-related issues has been passed down to local government. There are many other forms of pollution that do not fit neatly into this broad classification, and to fully understand the effect of every pollutant would often require time-consuming research into various case studies. The interaction between different types of pollution often contributes to a complex effect acting on a larger scale, such as global warming, which is a phenomenon created by the interaction between the increased levels of various gases (known collectively as greenhouse gases). Pollution affects us on a global scale, but it can be reduced or remediated by efforts at the local and personal level. The easiest way to start contributing to the effort to reduce pollution is to minimize one’s own pollution of the environment. It is this diffuse type of pollution which is much more difficult to catch and trace. Individual citizens not disposing of their wastes properly, or households with misconnected drains, all have a small effect on pollution levels, and collectively this adds up to a large increase in pollution if unchecked or unreported. This is the pollution whose source is often unnoticed, and it is up to each individual to eliminate himself or herself as a source of this anonymous, unaccountable pollution. Many nonprofit organizations and agencies concerned with the welfare of our environment are engaged in activities to counter pollution and its effects. Participating in local community clean-up events can help to not only reduce the level of pollution in a community, but also heightens the awareness of people regarding pollution issues, especially if the organizers have invited an environmental expert to deliver a talk about problems relevant to the community. Recycling gadgets instead of throwing them away is a solution that helps both the consumers and the manufacturing industries. Sony Electronics, Inc. has a recycling program that accepts old or non-working Sony branded products free of charge, and even products of other companies for a small fee (On a higher level, government environmental agencies monitor the major point sources of pollution such as wastes disposed by large factories and industrial companies. With pollution’s far-reaching consequences, nations must help each other to remediate the worst polluted areas. An estimated 1 billion people are affected by pollution issues, and a majority of those people are in the developing world, where a general lack of awareness and local regulation of pollution has reduced the overall life expectancy and quality of life (Hanrahan et al., 2). With minimal financial investment, a number of remediation measures can be carried out in some of the worst polluted areas in the developing world. These measures will help save lives, particularly of children, at an estimated cost of only one to fifty US dollars per person each year. However, implementing such measures often takes a back seat to the basic needs of education and primary health services that local governments often must prioritize (Hanrahan et al., 2-4). This is why it is important to have international intervention and cooperation, not apathy and the selfish attitude summed up by ‘it’s someone else’s problem, let them take care of it’. In dealing with pollution it is important to keep in mind that many of the sources contributing to pollution are industries upon which modern society is dependent. Mining and agriculture are two examples of ancient activities that have helped men to develop their civilizations. Mining enabled us to build better shelters and construct the tools and implements that we use in everyday tasks. Agriculture and the potential to store surplus food has taken us from the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers and brought humans together in the first settlements, which eventually grew into cities and states. Pollution is a byproduct of these activities, and the effort to reduce or prevent pollution is not trying to destroy major industries or cease the production and development of new technology. It is an effort to make the producers and consumers responsible for the regulation of wastes created by these activities, and their proper management and disposal. We live in an age of awareness, and thanks to our awakening and gradual realization of how we affect the world around us, today’s environmental crisis has increasingly become a fact of life in the modern world. Modern governments should no longer be intent on debating the validity of environmental concerns, but focused on finding and implementing solutions. The root of these problems – human degradation of the environment and exploitation of its resources – has been at work ever since the dawn of the civilized age. The environmental crisis of the present, on both the global and local levels, is not a burden that we have borne for only a few generations; it is a result of centuries, even millennia, of human exploitation of available resources without the guidance of modern environmental science, accelerated by the industrialization brought about by developing technology, and abetted by attitudes and sensibilities that have developed in ignorance of how we impact our surroundings. The inertia of these outdated attitudes and accelerating industrial processes is huge and cannot be so easily stopped; it may take decades to realize the full extent of the damage we have done to the environment in every aspect, and perhaps longer to reverse the trend. But for many of us, the fundamental error in thinking has, at least, been corrected. Environmental problems elsewhere in the world are no longer just someone else’s concern. With modern globalization, what we do in our part of the world affects everyone else, and if we continue to act and think with that in mind, the environmental problems facing all of society will be managed by society as a whole. Works Cited â€Å"A slow-moving oil spill.† Ed. John Dodge. 01 December 2007. The Olympian. 04 December 2007 http://news.tradingcharts.com/futures/5/7/101611775.html Akbar, S. et al. World Health Organization. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005. Germany: Druckpartner Moser, 2005. Boudouresque CF, Verlaque M. Biological pollution in the Mediterranean Sea: invasive versus introduced macrophytes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2002 January; 44(1):32-8. Buell, Frederick. From Apocalypse to Way of Life: Four Decades of Environmental Crisis in the U.S. New York: Routledge, 2003. Diamond, Jared. Collapse. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. Environment Agency, 2003. The Water Framework Directive – not only a question of quality. Bristol: Environment Agency. Environment Agency, 2004. Soil, the hidden resource. Bristol: Environment Agency. Environment Agency, 2007. The unseen threat to water quality. Bristol: Environment Agency. Hanrahan, D. et al. Blacksmith Institute. Cost Effectiveness and Health Impact of Remediation of Highly Polluted Sites in the Developing World. 2007. International Atomic Energy Agency. Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Austria: IAEA, 2006. â€Å"Interview of Al Gore.† Larry King Live. CNN. 05 July 2007.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Invasion Biology Introduced Species Summary Project.† Ed. Jennifer Blake. 10 January 2005. Columbia University. 02 December 2007 http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Lates_niloticus.htm John, E. M. et al. Medical radiation exposure and breast cancer risk: findings from the Breast Cancer Family Registry. International Journal of Cancer: 2007 July; 121(2):386-94. â€Å"Link Between Climate Change and Biological Pollution could Harm Northwest.† Ed. Derek Reiber. 02 July 2001. Sightline Institute. 02 December 2007 http://www.tidepool.org/derek/invasives.html â€Å"Noise Pollution Control.† 2007. Maryland Department of the Environment. 05 December 2007 http://www.mde.state.md.us Path: Programs; Multimedia Programs; Noise Pollution Control. â€Å"Pollution and its effect to the environment: Interview with Ricky Clancy of Sony Electronics Blog.† 27 September 2007. 05 December 2007. http://bdpollution.blogspot.com/2007/09/interview-with-ricky-clancy-of-sony.html â€Å"Risk/Benefit of Medical Radiation Exposures.† Ed. Kelly Classic. 04 December 2007. Health Physics Society. 04 December 2007 http://hps.org Path: HPS Publications; Articles. â€Å"Thermal Pollution.† Ed. Silvia Lourenco and Rute Neves. 05 December 1996. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. 04 December 2007 http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/Environmental/THERMAL/tte1.htm United States Environmental Protection Agency. Noise: A Health Problem. Washington, 1978

school prayer :: essays research papers

did when I was growing up there. Today it is necessary to have a Police Officer in the village of Larsen Bay, Alaska because of domestic violence and alcohol/drug abuse. There was the Russian Orthodox religion, but Priests only made a short visit approximately every six months to a year, that is if the weather and the Priest's schedule permitted. Whenever a Russian Orthodox Priest would visit, he would give all of his sermons in either Russian, or Slavonic. Very few if any of the villagers understood Russian or the Slavonic language. A few years before I left the village the Baptists moved in to cleanse our heathen souls. The Baptist presence in the village lasted for about 10 years after I left. There is a Russian Orthodox religious presence in the village today. The Russian Orthodox religion moved into the village, built a Church and this time give their sermons in English or at least through an interpreter. I had a childhood that was without the pressures and influence of organized religion. When I left the village and went out into the world, my curiosity was aroused to the different supernatural god-beliefs of the world. I found that some people believed so strongly that they had the "only" one true religion that they would fight and die for that belief. Supernatural god-beliefs are just that - beliefs, a figment of imagination and a superstition. People that are indoctrinated from birth into supernatural god-beliefs know that they are right and that the others have it all wrong. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Public School Pre-game Prayer Halt prayer before games judge orders This was on the front page of the Atlanta Constitution on September 25, 1986. A federal judge issued a temporary restraining order banning prayers before football games at the Douglas County High School in Douglasville, GA. Doug Jager just returned to Douglasville, GA from his first trip to Larsen Bay, Alaska where he spent the summer. Emotions were intense and out of control for Christians who suddenly found that they lost one of their means of imposing their prayers onto the public. After the Atlanta Constitution's front-page story to halt prayers at public school football games, Georgia went crazy. The Jager household was besieged with some of the nastiest phone calls and open public abuse coming from Christians in the name of God. The abuse coming from Christians was very intense, and meant to terrorize and to intimidate.

Healthcare System in Cuba

8)  Sources †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 16 )  HISTORY Modern Western medicine has been practiced in Cuba by formally trained  doctors  since at least the beginning of the 19th century and the first surgical clinic was established in 1823. Cuba has had many world class doctors, including  Carlos Finlay, whose mosquito-based theory of  yellow fever  transmission was given its final proof under the direction of  Walter Reed,  James Carroll, and  Aristides Agramonte. During the period of U. S presence (1898–1902) yellow fever was essentially eliminated due to the efforts of  Clara Maass  and surgeon Jesse W. Lazear.In 1976, Cuba's healthcare program was enshrined in Article 50 of the revised  Cuban constitution  which states â€Å"Everyone has the right to health protection and care. The state guarantees this righ t by providing free medical and hospital care by means of the installations of the rural medical service network, polyclinics, hospitals, preventative and specialized treatment centers; by providing free dental care; by promoting the health publicity campaigns, health education, regular medical examinations, general vaccinations and other measures to prevent the outbreak of disease.All the population cooperates in these activities and plans through the social and mass organizations. Cuba's doctor to patient ratio grew significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, from 9. 2 doctors per 10,000 inhabitants in 1958, to 58. 2 per 10,000 in 1999. In the 1960s the government implemented a program of almost universal  vaccinations. This helped eradicate many contagious diseases including  polio  and  rubella, though some diseases increased during the period of economic hardship of the 1990s, such as  tuberculosis,  hepatitis  and  chicken pox.Other campaigns included a program to reduce the infant mortality rate in 1970 directed at maternal and prenatal care. 1. POST-SOVIET UNION The loss of Soviet subsidies brought famine to Cuba in the early 1990s. In 2007, Cuba announced that it has undertaken computerizing and creating national networks in Blood Banks, Nephrology and Medical Images. Cuba is the second country in the world with such a product, only preceded by France.Cuba is preparing a Computerized Health Register, Hospital Management System, Primary Health Care, Academic Affairs, Medical Genetic Projects, Neurosciences, and Educational Software. The aim is to maintain quality health service free for the Cuban people, increase exchange among experts and boost research-development projects. An important link in wiring process is to guarantee access to Cuba's Data Transmission Network and Health Website (INFOMED) to all units and workers of the national health ystem. 2)  PRESENT | | | | |WHO  health statistics for Cuba | |[Source:  WHO country page on Cuba] | |Life expectancy at birth m/f: |76. 0/80. (years) | |Healthy life expectancy at birth m/f: |67. 1/69. 5 (years) | |Child mortality m/f: |8/7 (per 1000) | |Adult mortality m/f: |131/85 (per 1000) | |Total health expenditure per capita: |$251 | |Total health expenditure as  % of GDP: |7. 3 | Rank |Countries | |Statistic |Date of | | |surveyed | | |Information | |125 |167 |HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate |0. 10% |2003 est. | |162 |175 |Fertility rate |1. 66 (children/woman) |2006. | |153 |224 |Birth rate |11. 9 (births/1,000 population) |2006 est. | |168 |226 |Infant mortality rate |6. 04 (deaths/1,000 live births) |2006. | |129 |224 |Death rate |6. 33 (deaths/1,000 population) |2005. | |37 |225 |Life expectancy at birth |77. 23 (years) |2006. est | |17 |99 |Suicide rate |18. 3 per 100,000 people per year |1996. | 3)  COMPARISON OF PRE- AND POST-REVOLUTIONARY INDICES |Cuba: Public health 1950-2005 | |   |Years | | | 1. HEALTH INDICATORS AND ISSUES Cuba bega n a food rationing program in 1962 to guarantee all citizens a low-priced basket of basic foods.As of 2007, the government was spending about $1 billion annually to subsidise the food ration. The ration would cost about $50 at an average grocery store in the United States, but the Cuban citizen pays only $1. 20 for it. The ration includes rice, legumes, potatoes, bread, eggs, and a small amount of meat. It provides about 30 to 70 percent of the 3,300 kilocalories that the average Cuban consumes daily. The people obtain the rest of their food from government stores (Tiendas), free market stores and cooperatives, barter, their own gardens, and the black market.According to the Pan American Health Organization, daily caloric intake per person in various places in 2003 were as follows (unit is kilocalories): Cuba, 3,286; America, 3,205; Latin America and the Caribbean, 2,875; Latin Caribbean countries, 2,593; United States, 3,754. The table below shows the relative seriousness of commun icable diseases, non-communicable diseases (e. g. , heart disease and cancer) and injuries, in various parts of the world. Data is from the World Health Organisation and is for year 2004. Distribution of years of life lost by cause (%) | |Place |Communicable |Non-communicable |Injuries | |Cuba |9 |75 |16 | |World |51 |34 |14 | |High income countries |8 |77 |15 | |United States |9 |73 |18 | |Low income countries |68 |21 |10 | | | |Source: World Health Organisation. World Health Statistics 2009, Table 2, â€Å"Cause-specific | |mortality and morbidity†. | Like the rest of the  Cuban economy, numerous reports have shown that Cuban medical care has long suffered from severe material shortages caused by the  US embargo. The ending of Soviet subsidies in the early 1990s has also affected it. While  preventive medical care,  diagnostic tests  and  medication  for hospitalized patients are free, some aspects of healthcare are paid for by the patient.Items which are paid by patients who can afford it are: drugs prescribed on an  outpatient  basis, hearing,  dental, and  orthopedic  processes,  wheelchairs  and  crutches. When a patient can obtain these items at state stores, prices tend to be low as these items are subsidized by the state. For patients on a low-income, these items are free of charge. 2. SEXUAL HEALTH †¢ According to the  UNAIDS  report of 2003 there were an estimated 3,300 Cubans living with  HIV/AIDS  (approx 0. 05% of the population). In the mid-1980s, when little was known about the virus, Cuba compulsorily tested thousands of its citizens for  HIV. Those who tested positive were taken toLos Cocos and were not allowed to leave. The policy drew criticism from the United Nations  and was discontinued in the 1990s. Since 1996 Cuba began the production of generic  anti-retroviral  drugs reducing the costs to well below that of developing countries. This has been made possible through the substant ial government subsidies to treatment. †¢ In 2003 Cuba had the lowest HIV prevalence in the Americas and one of the lowest in the world. The  UNAIDS  reported that HIV infection rates for Cuba were 0. 1%, and for other countries in the Caribbean between 1 – 4%. Education in Cuba concerning issues of HIV infection and AIDS is implemented by the  Cuban National Center for Sex Education. According to  Avert, an international  AIDS  charity, â€Å"Cuba’s epidemic remains by far the smallest in the Caribbean. †Ã‚  They add however that †¦ new HIV infections are on the rise, and Cuba’s preventive measures appear not to be keeping pace with conditions that favour the spread of HIV, including widening income inequalities and a growing sex industry. At the same time, Cuba’s prevention of mother-to-child transmission programme remains highly effective. All pregnant women are tested for HIV, and those testing positive receive antiretrovi ral drugs. †¢ In recent years because of the rise in  prostitution  due to  tourism,  STDs  have increased. 3. 3 EMBARGODuring the 90s the ongoing  United States embargo against Cuba  caused problems due to restrictions on the export of medicines from the US to Cuba. In 1992 the US embargo was made more stringent with the passage of the  Cuban Democracy Act  resulting in all U. S. subsidiary trade, including trade in food and medicines, being prohibited. The legislation did not state that Cuba cannot purchase medicines from U. S. companies or their foreign subsidiaries; however, such license requests have been routinely denied. In 1995 the  Inter-American Commission on Human Rights  of the Organization of American States informed the U. S. Government that such activities violate international law and has requested that the U. S. ake immediate steps to exempt medicine from the embargo. The Lancet  and the  British Medical Journal  also condemned the e mbargo in the 90s. A 1997 report prepared by  Oxfam  America and the  Washington Office on Latin America,  Myths And Facts About The U. S. Embargo On Medicine And Medical Supplies, concluded that the embargo forced Cuba to use more of its limited resources on medical imports, both because equipment and drugs from foreign subsidiaries of U. S. firms or from non-U. S. sources tend to be higher priced and because shipping costs are greater. The Democracy Act of 1992 further exacerbated the problems in Cuba's medical system. It prohibited foreign subsidiaries of U. S. orporations from selling to Cuba, thus further limiting Cuba's access to medicine and equipment, and raising prices. In addition, the act forbids ships that dock in Cuban ports from docking in U. S. ports for six months. This drastically restricts shipping, and increases shipping cost some 30%. 3. 4 MEDICAL STAFF IN CUBA According to the World Health Organization, Cuba provides a doctor for every 170 residents, and has the second highest doctor to patient ratio in the world after Italy. Medical professionals are not paid high salaries by international standards. In 2002 the mean monthly salary was 261 pesos, 1. 5 times the national mean. A doctor’s salary in the late 1990s was equivalent to about US$15–20 per month in purchasing power.Therefore, some prefer to work in different occupations, for example in the lucrative tourist industry where earnings can be much higher. The  San Francisco Chronicle, the  Washington Post, and  National Public Radio  have all reported on Cuban doctors defecting to other countries. 3. 5  BLACK MARKET HEALTHCARE The difficulty in gaining access to certain medicines and treatments has led to healthcare playing an increasing role in Cuba's burgeoning  black market  economy, sometimes termed â€Å"sociolismo†. According to former leading Cuban  neurosurgeon  and  dissident  Dr  Hilda Molina, â€Å"The doctors in the hosp itals are charging patients under the table for better or quicker service. † Prices for out-of-surgery X-rays have been quoted at $50 to $60.Such â€Å"under-the-table payments† reportedly date back to the 1970s, when Cubans used gifts and tips in order to get health benefits. The harsh economic downturn known as the â€Å"Special Period† in the 1990s aggravated these payments. The advent of the â€Å"dollar economy†, a temporary legalization of the dollar which led some Cubans to receive dollars from their relatives outside of Cuba, meant that a class of Cubans was able to obtain medications and health services that would not be available to them otherwise. 4)  CUBA AND INTERNATIONAL HEALTHCARE In the 1970s, the Cuban state initiated bilateral service contracts and various money-making strategies.Cuba has entered into agreements with  United Nations  agencies specializing in health:  PAHO/WHO,  UNICEF, the  United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization  (FAO), the  United Nations Population Fund  (UNFPA), and the  United Nations Development Fund (UNDP). Since 1989, this collaboration has played a very important role in that Cuba, in addition to obtaining the benefits of being a member country, has strengthened its relations with institutions of excellence and has been able to disseminate some of its own advances and technologies Cuba currently exports considerable health services and personnel to Venezuela in exchange for subsidized  oil. Cuban doctors play a primary role in the  Mission Barrio Adentro (Spanish: â€Å"Mission Into the Neighborhood†) social welfare program established in Venezuela under current Venezuelan president  Hugo Chavez.The program, which is popular among Venezuela's poor and is intended to bring doctors and other medical services to the most remote slums of Venezuela,  has not been without its detractors. Operacion Milagro (Operation Miracle) is a joint health program be tween Cuba and Venezuela, set up in 2005. Human Rights Watch  complains that the government â€Å"bars citizens engaged in authorized travel from taking their children with them overseas, essentially holding the children hostage to guarantee the parents' return. Given the widespread fear of forced family separation, these travel restrictions provide the Cuban government with a powerful tool for punishing defectors and silencing critics. †Ã‚  Doctors are reported to be monitored by â€Å"minders† and subject to curfew.The Cuban government uses relatives as hostages to prevent doctors from defecting. According to a paper published in  The Lancet  medical journal, â€Å"growing numbers of Cuban doctors sent overseas to work are defecting to the USA†, some via Colombia, where they have sought temporary asylum. Cuban doctors have been part of a large-scale plan by the Cuban state to provide free medical aid and services to the international community (especiall y third world countries) following natural disasters. Currently dozens of American medical students are trained to assist in these donations at the Escuela Latino Americana de Medecina (ELAM) in Cuba. 4. 1  HEALTH TOURISM AND PHARMACEUTICSCuba attracts about 20,000  paying  health tourists, generating revenues of around $40 million a year for the Cuban economy. Cuba has been serving health tourists from around the world for more than 20 years. The country operates a special division of hospitals specifically for the treatment of foreigners and diplomats. Foreign patients travel to Cuba for a wide range of treatments including  eye-surgery,  neurological  disorders such as  multiple sclerosis  and  Parkinson’s disease,  cosmetic surgery, addictions treatment,  retinitis pigmentosa  and orthopaedics. Most patients are from Latin America, Europe and Canada, and a growing number of Americans also are coming.Cuba also successfully exports many medical produ cts, such as  vaccines. By 1998, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, the Cuban health sector had risen to occupy around two percent of total tourism. Some of these revenues are in turn transferred to health care for ordinary Cubans, although the size and importance of these transfers is both unknown and controversial. At one nationally prominent hospital/research institute, hard currency payments by foreigners have financed the construction of a new bathroom in the splanic surgery wing; anecdotal evidence suggests that this pattern is common in Cuban hospitals. 5)  ALTERNATIVE HEALTHCAREEconomic constraints and restrictions on medicines have forced the Cuban health system to incorporate  alternative  and  herbal  solutions to healthcare issues, which can be more accessible and affordable to a broader population. In the 1990s, the Cuban Ministry of Public Health officially recognized natural and  traditional medicine  and began it s integration into the already well established Western medicine model. Examples of alternative techniques used by the clinics and hospitals include:  flower essence, neural and hydromineral therapies,  homeopathy,  traditional Chinese medicine  (i. e. acupunctural  anesthesia for surgery), natural dietary supplements,  yoga, electromagnetic and laser devices.Cuban biochemists have produced a number of new alternative medicines, including PPG (policosanol), a natural product derived from sugarcane wax that is effective at reducing total cholesterol and LDL levels, and Vimang a natural product derived from the bark of  mango trees. 6)  MEDICAL RESEARCH IN CUBA The Cuban Ministry of Health produces a number of  medical journals  including the  ACIMED, the  Cuban Journal of Surgery  and the  Cuban Journal of Tropical Medicine. Because the U. S. government restricts investments in Cuba by U. S. companies and their affiliates, Cuban institutions have been limi ted in their ability to enter into research and development partnerships, although exceptions have been made for significant drugs. In April 2007, the Cuba IPV Study Collaborative Group reported in the  NewEngland Journal of Medicine  that inactivated (killed) poliovirus vaccine was effective in vaccinating children in tropical conditions. The Collaborative Group consisted of the Cuban Ministry of Public Health, Kouri Institute, U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pan American Health Organization, and the World Health Organization. This is important because countries with high incidence of polio are now using live oral poliovirus vaccine. When polio is eliminated in a country, they must stop using the live vaccine, because it has a slight risk of reverting to the dangerous form of polio. The collaborative group found that when polio is eliminated in a population, they could safely switch to killed vaccine and be protected from recurrent epidemics.Cuba has been free of polio since 1963, but continues with mass immunization campaigns. In the 1980s, Cuban scientists developed a vaccine against a strain of bacterial meningitis B, which eliminated what had been a serious disease on the island. The Cuban vaccine is used throughout Latin America. After outbreaks of meningitis B in the United States, the U. S. Treasury Department granted a license in 1999 to an American subsidiary of the pharmaceutical company SmithKline Beecham to enter into a deal to develop the vaccine for use in the U. S. and elsewhere. 7)  ANALYSIS In 2006,  BBC  flagship news programme  Newsnight  featured Cuba's Healthcare system as part of a series identifying â€Å"the world's best public services†.The report noted that â€Å"Thanks chiefly to the American economic blockade, but partly also to the web of strange rules and regulations that constrict Cuban life, the economy is in a terrible mess: national income per head is minuscule, and resources are amazin gly tight. Healthcare, however, is a top national priority† The report stated that life expectancy and infant mortality rates are nearly the same as the USA's. Its doctor-to-patient ratios stand comparison to any country in Western Europe. Its annual total health spend per head, however, comes in at $251; just over a tenth of the UK's. The report concluded that the population's admirable health is one of the key reasons why Castro is still in power.A 2006 poll carried out by  the Gallup Organization's Costa Rican affiliate — Consultoria Interdisciplinaria en Desarrollo (CID) — found that about three-quarters of urban Cubans responded positively to the question â€Å"do you have confidence to your country's health care system†. In 2001, members of the  UK  House of Commons  Health  Select Committee  travelled to Cuba and issued a report that paid tribute to â€Å"the success of the Cuban healthcare system†, based on its â€Å"strong emph asis on disease prevention† and â€Å"commitment to the practice of medicine in a community†. CUBA’S COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH PROGRAM: 1. Confronting the Real Disaster †¢ Direct long-term medical care †¢ Applying lessons from Cuban experience On-the-ground training of local personnel †¢ Development and sharing of research †¢ Academic training for Cubans at international sites †¢ Trilateral cooperation †¢ Scholarships for medical education †¢ 29 countries involved (21 in Africa) 2. Direct Medical Services – Strengthening Health Systems †¢ Bilateral government accords, identify needs †¢ Bolster public health infrastructure, capabilities †¢ Shared financial responsibility †¢ Mainly remote, rural postings †¢ Individual commitment/institutional commitment †¢ Numbers of professionals enough to make a difference 3. Challenges and Opportunities – Bolstering Local Public Health Systems Opportunitie sChallenges ___________________________________________________________________ SustainabilityFrustration with local infrastructure Increase understanding locallyBend to local opinions Long-range perspective, understandingVulnerable to govt changes, political will Horizontal model, broad presenceIntegrate vertical programs Increase staffing for health systemCreate felt need in population Broad skill setMismatched, narrow skill set 4. Training Professionals for Global Health †¢ At least 100,000 new doctors by 2015 †¢ Second Latin American Medical School †¢ Cuba has founded 11 medical schools and 2 nursing schools abroad †¢ Cuban professors teach in a dozen others 5. Health Equity & Cooperation: Challenges They Face $$ Resources |Lacking |Wise use (still lacking†¦) | |Goals |Disease driven |Healthy people driven | |Programs |Silos |Blankets | |Models |Stand-alone |Building health systems | |Priorities |Donor driven |Effective local leadership | |Investments |I n buildings |In people | |Reach |Pilot programs |Scaling Up | |Way |Independent |Real cooperation | |Movement |Band aids |Change | 8)  SOURCES †¢ The World Health Organisation, and its regional branch, the Pan American Health Organization, publish regular reports as well as making data available on the web. †¢ World Health Organisation,  World Health Statistics 2009  consists mostly of tables (. df format) of health indicators, for most countries, for selected years between 1990 and 2008. World Health Organisation,  National Accounts Series  consists of statistics on the financing of health care in various countries. Cuba tables covers years 1995-2007. †¢ Pan American Health Organisation,  Health situation in the Americas: Basic Indicators 2008. Table of health indicators for countries, one datum from a recent year (2000-2008) for each indicator. Pan American Health Organisation,  Health in the Americas 2007  is primarily a text report; also contains t ables. First section is on the region as a whole, second section is reports on individual countries, including Cuba.

Leaders Who Changed Society Essay

All around the world, leaders and philosophers have changed nations and regions with their ideas and beliefs. Two of these people were John Locke and Mohandas Gandhi. John Locke believed the every person had natural rights, which were the right to life, liberty, and property and these rights could never be taken away. Mohandas Gandhi believed that violence was no the answer to problems, but peaceful protesting was, and so he was able to bring independence to India. Heir beliefs have changed societies for the better. John Locke was born on August 29, 1632 in Wrington, Somerset, England. He was an English philosopher who unlike other philosophers had a more positive view of human nature. He believed that all humans have the potential to do good in society. One belief that Locke had that has shaped society was his belief of natural rights. He believed that all humans are born free and equal, with three natural rights, the right to live, liberty, and the right to own property. This belief has shaped the governments everywhere. Societies with a democracy follow these laws and they are given to every individual and it can’t be taken way. Places like the United States follows natural rights and it is given to everyone. Another person whose ideas changed society was Mohandas Gandhi. He was born on October 2, 1869. He was a political and spiritual leader during the movement for India’s independence. He believed in non-violence and believed that every person was equal, regardless of race, ethnicity, or background and they should all be treated the same way. Before coming to India to protest against British rule, he was a lawyer in South Africa. When he returned to India in 1914, he protested British rule. Gandhi didn’t use brute force, but peaceful protests against the British. He got arrested many times for this. One of his most famous acts of defiance was the Salt March on March 12, 1930. Gandhi and the oppressed stopped buying British goods. One of these goods was salt. What they did was go to the ocean and get their own salt to defy the British. The British violently reacted and attacked them. This caused outrage all over the world and British goods were neglected by everyone. This forced the British to give India their independence. These two people have changed societies with their beliefs. John Locke’s belief of natural rights shaped governments. Mohandas Gandhi’s belief of non-violence led to the independence of India. They both helped change society for the better.

Video Games Ethics Essays

Video Games Ethics Essays Video Games Ethics Essay Video Games Ethics Essay The list of ethical concerns by Leigh Alexander touch on some areas which include a restriction on developers not to produce games associated with sexuality or politics thus violating the rights of developers, women becoming the subject of harassment by the quick growing video game industry. Next is the lack of legal framework to protect the copyright for small developers, publishers angry for video contents thus showing materials of promotion just as news. There is also exploitation of laborers through prolonged working hours as presenters of video productions, ethical violations along the supply chain of video game productions, others boldly accepting payments for video game adverts that are known as sponsored reviews. There is also the issue of unethical practice of hiring workers which do not value developers of video games at all. There is also the idea that developers of video games buying are using weapons from manufacturers which they use in three-dimensional design productio ns. This creates trouble regarding relationship between arms manufacturers and video game producers. Finally, the buyers of video games have no right to own what they buy to the extent of not able to play then later on (Garry, 2016). The ethical concerns as portrayed by Leigh can, therefore, be described as a problem and negative effects of information technology in the society due to technology misuse. The main problem that seems apparent in this case is the misuse of technology to infringe both the rights of other video game producers and consumers regarding violent video games. The large scale video game producers take advantage of legal loopholes to illegally exploit the small-scale video game producers. The employed workers in the area of production are also are also abused regarding their rights to work for the acceptable time limits. The entire discussion is all about answering the questions of moral philosophy and the sector of information communication technology on political, social and ethical norms of the society which all seem to be a compromise (Garry, 2016). My kids should know that am their parent and I provide all necessary things they want in their life including food and clothing. Other kids outside their have no one to do this since their parents are either dead or miserable. They should understand that such kids have to provide for themselves, and the only way to do this is working in such harsh environment. The kids should know that their fellow kids have no one to depend on to and that is the reason their colleagues are being forced to work. References Garry Young. (2016). Ethics and Information Technology, Volume 17, Number 4, Page 311

Biography of Granville T. Woods, Black Thomas Edison

Biography of Granville T. Woods, 'Black Thomas Edison' Granville T. Woods (April 23, 1856–Jan. 30, 1910) was a black inventor so successful that he was sometimes referred to as The Black Edison. He dedicated his lifes work to developing a variety of inventions, many relating to the railroad industry. By the time of his early death at age 53, Woods had invented 15 appliances for electric railways and received nearly 60 patents, many related to the railroad industry. Fast Facts: Granville T. Woods Known For: Highly successful black inventorAlso Known As: The Black EdisonBorn: April 23, 1856 in Columbus, Ohio or AustraliaParents: Tailer and Martha Woods or Martha J. Brown and Cyrus WoodsDied: Jan. 30, 1910 in New York, New YorkNotable Invention: Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph Early Life Granville T. Woods was born on April 23, 1856. Most reports indicate he was born in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Tailer and Martha Woods, and that he and his parents were free African-Americans by virtue of the  Northwest Ordinance  of 1787, which prohibited slavery from the territory that included what would become the state of Ohio. However, Rayvon Fouchà © wrote in a Woods biography that, based on census records, Woods death certificate, and journalistic accounts published in the 1890s, Woods was born in Australia and apparently moved to Columbus at a young age. Some biographies list his parents as Martha J. Brown and Cyrus Woods. Early Career Most sources agree that Woods had little formal education, leaving school at age 10 to work as an apprentice, studying to be a machinist and a blacksmith, and literally learning his skills on the job. Woods held a variety of positions in his early teens, including working as an engineer in a railroad machine shop and on a British ship, in a steel mill, and as a railroad worker. While working, Woods took courses in fields such as engineering and electronics, realizing that education was essential to developing the skills he would need to express his creativity with machinery.​  Some reports say he had up to two years of college course training in either electrical or mechanical engineering or both, possibly in an East Coast college from 1876 to 1878. In 1872, Woods obtained a job as a fireman on the Danville and Southern railroad in Missouri, eventually becoming an engineer and studying electronics in his spare time. In 1874, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and worked in a rolling mill. Four years later, he took a job aboard the British steamer Ironsides. Within two years, he became its chief engineer. Settling Down His travels and experiences finally led him to settle in Cincinnati, Ohio, where he dedicated himself to modernizing the railroad and its equipment. Woods invented more than a dozen devices to improve electric railway cars and other devices for controlling the flow of electricity. His most noted invention at this point was a system for letting a train engineer know how close his train was to others, which helped reduce collisions. He also developed a system for overhead electric conducting lines for railroads, which aided in the development of overhead railroad systems in cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, and New York. Woods eventually set up his own business, the Woods Electrical Co., in Cincinnati to develop, manufacture, and sell electrical apparatus. In his early 30s, he became interested in thermal power and steam-driven engines. He filed his first patent for an improved steam boiler furnace in 1889. His later patents were mainly for electrical devices. He also developed the Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph, which allowed communications between train stations and moving trains. This made it possible for trains to communicate with stations and other trains so everyone knew exactly where the trains were at all times. Among his other inventions were an automatic air brake used to slow or stop trains and an electric car that was powered by overhead wires. It used a third rail system to keep the cars running on the right tracks. Other Inventors Telephone inventor Alexander Graham Bells company, American Bell Telephone Co., purchased the rights to  Woods patent on an apparatus that combined a telephone and a telegraph. The device, which Woods called â€Å"telegraphony,† allowed a telegraph station to send voice and telegraph messages over a single wire. Proceeds from the sale gave Woods the luxury of being a full-time inventor. Success led to lawsuits. One was filed by famed inventor Thomas Edison, who sued Woods on a claim that he, Edison, was the inventor of the multiplex telegraph. Woods eventually won the court battle, but Edison didnt give up easily when he wanted something. Trying to win over Woods and his inventions, Edison offered Woods a prominent position in the engineering department of Edison Electric Light Co. in New York. Woods declined, preferring to maintain his independence. Early in his career during the summer of 1881, Woods contracted smallpox, which was in its last years as a major health threat in the United States. The often fatal illness sidelined Woods for nearly a year and left him with chronic kidney and liver disease that might have played a role in his early death. He suffered a stroke on Jan. 28, 1910, and died at Harlem Hospital in New York two days later. During his smallpox illness, Woods was quoted as saying he had to take extreme measures to support his family. Another reference, in 1891, mentioned that he was being sued for divorce. Generally, though, newspaper accounts referred to Woods as being a bachelor. Legacy Granville T. Woods dozens of inventions and patents made life easier and safer for countless Americans, especially when it came to railroad travel. When he died, he had become an admired and well-respected inventor, having sold a number of his devices to such industrial giants as Westinghouse, General Electric, and American Engineering. Decades later, many of his other patents have been assigned to major manufacturers of electrical equipment that play a substantial role in daily life. To the world, he was known as the Black Thomas Edison, and his numerous inventions and improvements to existing technology seem to support that characterization. Sources Granville T. Woods:  1856–1910.Encyclopedia.com.Granville T. Woods. Biography.com.Granville T. Woods. AfricanAmericanHistoryOnline.com.Granville T. Woods. Famous Black Inventors.